Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Visual-orthographic skills predict the covariance of Chinese word reading and arithmetic calculation

  • Published:
Reading and Writing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study provides evidence connecting two aspects of visual-orthographic skills (orthographic awareness and delayed copying) to the common variance shared by Chinese word reading and arithmetic calculation, as well as in identifying positional knowledge of numbers as a potential mediator of these connections in Chinese primary school students (N = 155, 81 boys). Nonverbal Intelligent Quotient (IQ), socioeconomic status (SES), working memory, and attentional control were included as covariates. Path analyses demonstrated that both orthographic awareness and delayed copying significantly explained the covariance of word reading and arithmetic calculation. Furthermore, there is an indirect effect via positional knowledge of numbers as indicated by number line estimation and strategic counting on the relations between orthographic awareness and the common variance shared by word reading and arithmetic calculation. In contrast, delayed copying had a direct effect on the common variance. Results suggest that early visual-orthographic skills may be helpful in the development of both word reading and arithmetic ability among Chinese students.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, R. C., Ku, Y. M., Li, W., Chen, X., Wu, X., & Shu, H. (2013). Learning to see the patterns in chinese characters. Scientific Studies of Reading, 17(1), 41–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Apel, K. (2011). What is orthographic knowledge? Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 42, 592–603.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berteletti, I., Lucangeli, D., Piazza, M., Dehaene, S., & Zorzi, M. (2010). Numerical estimation in preschoolers. Developmental Psychology, 46(2), 545–551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Castelli, F., Glaser, D. E., & Butterworth, B. (2006). Discrete and analogue quantity processing in the parietal lobe: A functional MRI study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(12), 4693–4698. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0600444103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, W. W. L., Au, T. K., & Tang, J. (2014). Strategic counting: A novel assessment of place-value understanding. Learning and Instruction, 29, 78–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, L. Y., Plaut, D. C., & Perfetti, C. A. (2016). Visual complexity in orthographic learning: Modeling learning across writing system variations. Scientific Studies of Reading, 20(1), 64–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2015.1104688.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, N. T., Zheng, M., & Ho, C. S. H. (2019). Examining the visual attention span deficit hypothesis in chinese developmental dyslexia. Reading and Writing, 32, 639–662.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chung, F. H., & Leung, M. (2008). Data analysis of chinese characters in primary school corpora of Hong Kong and mainland china: Preliminary theoretical interpretations. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 22(4–5), 379–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chung, K. K. H., & McBride-Chang, C. (2011). Executive functioning skills uniquely predict chinese word reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(4), 909–921. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024744.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chung, K. K., Tong, X., & McBride-Chang, C. (2012). Evidence for a deficit in orthographic structure processing in chinese developmental dyslexia: An event-related potential study. Brain Research, 1472, 20–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2012.06.010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cirino, P. T., Child, A. E., & Macdonald, K. T. (2018). Longitudinal predictors of the overlap between reading and math skills. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.06.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidse, N. J., De Jong, M., & Bus, A. (2014). Explaining common variance shared by early numeracy and literacy. Reading and Writing, 27(4), 631–648.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dehaene, S. (1997). The number sense: How the mind creates mathematics. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dehaene, S., Izard, V., Spelke, E., & Pica, P. (2008). Log or linear? Distinct intuitions of the number scale in western and amazonian indigene cultures. Science (,320 N.Y.), 320 vol., pp. 1217–1220). New York. 588010.1126/science.1156540.

  • Dinehart, L., & Manfra, L. (2013). Associations between low-income children’s fine motor skills in preschool and academic performance in second grade. Early Education and Development, 24(2), 138–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2011.636729.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A. C., Klebanov, P., ... Japel, C. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1428–1446. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428.

  • Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Compton, D. L., Powell, S. R., Seethaler, P. M., Capizzi, A. M., & Fletcher, J. M. (2006). The cognitive correlates of third-grade skill in arithmetic, algorithmic computation, and arithmetic word problems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(1), 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, L. S., Gilbert, J. K., Fuchs, D., Seethaler, P. M., & Martin, N., B (2018). Text comprehension and oral language as predictors of word-problem solving: Insights into word-problem solving as a form of text comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 22(2), 152–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuson, K. C., Richards, J., & Briars, D. J. (1982). The acquisition and elaboration of the number word sequence. In C.Brainerd (Ed.), Progress in cognitive development research: Vol 1. Children’s logical and mathematical cognition (pp. 33–92). New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (2013). Early Foundations for Mathematics Learning and their relations to learning disabilities. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(1), 23–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412469398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, P. (2004). Numerical cognition without words: Evidence from amazonia. Science, 306(5695), 496–499. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1094492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., Beilock, S. L., & Levine, S. C. (2012). The relation between spatial skill and early number knowledge: The role of the linear number line. Developmental Psychology, 48(5), 1229–1241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ho, C. S. H., & Cheng, F. S. (1997). Training in place-value concepts improves children’s addition skills. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22(4), 495–506.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ho, C. S. H., Yau, P. W., & Au, A. (2003a). Development of orthographic knowledge and its relationship with reading and spelling among Chinese kindergarten and primary school children. In: McBride-Chang, Catherine, and Chen, Hsuan-Chih, (eds.) Reading Development in Chinese Children. Greenwood, pp. 51–71.

  • Ho, C. S. H., Ng, T. T., & Ng, W. K. (2003b). A “radical” approach to reading development in Chinese: The role of semantic radicals and phonetic radicals. Journal of Literacy Research, 35, 849–878.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ho, C. S. H., Chan, D., Chung, K. K. H., Tsang, S. M., Lee, S. H., & Cheng, W. Y. R. (2007). The Hong Kong Test of Specific Learning Difficulties in Reading and writing for Primary School Students-Second Edition. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Specific Learning Difficulties Research Team. [HKT-P(II)].

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoover, W. A., & Tunmer, W. E. (2018). The simple view of reading: Three assessments of its adequacy. Remedial and Special Education, 39(5), 304–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huo, S., Zhang, X., & Law, Y. K. (2021). Supplemental material for pathways to word reading and calculation skills in young chinese children: From biologically primary skills to biologically secondary skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(2), 230–247. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000647.supp.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Institute of Language Teaching and Research [of China]. (1986). A frequency dictionary of modern chinese. Beijing, China: Beijing Language Institute Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koponen, T., Aunola, K., Ahonen, T., & Nurmi, J. E. (2007). Cognitive predictors of single-digit and procedural calculation skills and their covariation with reading skill. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 97(3), 220–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2007.03.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koponen, T., Salmi, P., Eklund, K., & Aro, T. (2013). Counting and RAN: Predictors of arithmetic calculation and reading fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(1), 162–175. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koponen, T., Eklund, K., Heikkilä, R., Salminen, J., Fuchs, L., Fuchs, D., & Aro, M. (2020). Cognitive correlates of the covariance in reading and arithmetic fluency: Importance of serial retrieval fluency. Child Development, 91(4), 1063–1080. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korpipää, H., Koponen, T., Aro, M., Tolvanen, A., Aunola, K., Poikkeus, A. M., & Nurmi, J. E. (2017). Concordance between reading and math skills: Stability and Change from Grade 1 to Grade 7. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 51, 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.06.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laski, E. V., & Yu, Q. (2014). Number line estimation and mental addition: Examining the potential roles of language and education. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 117, 29–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.08.007.

  • Lefevre, J. A., Fast, L., Skwarchuk, S. L., Smith-Chant, B. L., Bisanz, J., Kamawar, D., & Penner-Wilger, M. (2010). Pathways to Mathematics: Longitudinal predictors of performance. Child Development, 81(6), 1753–1767.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LeFevre, J., Lira, C. J., Sowinski, C., Cankaya, O., Kamawar, D., & Skwarchuk, S. (2013). Charting the role of the number line in mathematical development. Frontiers in Psychology, 4.

  • Li, H., Shu, H., McBride-Chang, C., Liu, H., & Peng, H. (2012). Chinese children’s character recognition: Visuo‐orthographic, phonological processing and morphological skills. Journal of Research in Reading, 35(3), 287–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Link, T., Nuerk, H., & Moeller, K. (2014). On the relation between the mental number line and arithmetic competencies. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(8), 1597–1613.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S., & Liu, D. (2019). Visual-spatial attention and reading achievement in Hong Kong Chinese children: Evidence from a one-year longitudinal study. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1–15.

  • Liu, D., Chen, X., & Wang, Y. (2016a). The impact of visual-spatial attention on reading and spelling in chinese children. Reading and Writing, 29(7), 1435–1447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Y., Lin, D., & Zhang, X. (2016b). Morphological awareness longitudinally predicts counting ability in chinese kindergarteners. Learning and Individual Differences, 47, 215–221. 10.1016/j.lindif.2016b.01.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S., Wang, L., & Liu, D. (2019). Deficits of visual search in chinese children with dyslexia. Journal of Research in Reading, 42(2), 454–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lo, J. C. M., Ye, Y., Tong, X., McBride, C., Ho, C. S., & Waye, M. M. Y. (2018). Delayed copying is uniquely related to dictation in bilingual cantonese–english-speaking children in Hong Kong. Writing Systems Research, 10(1), 26–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, B. L., Moyer-Pakenham, P. S., & Child, B. (2018). Components of place value understanding: Targeting mathematical difficulties when providing interventions. School Science and Mathematics, 118(1–2), 17–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maertens, B., De Smedt, B., Sasanguie, D., Elen, J., & Reynvoet, B. (2016). Enhancing arithmetic in pre-schoolers with comparison or number line estimation training: Does it matter? Learning and Instruction, 46, 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manfra, L., Squires, C., Dinehart, L. H. B., Bleiker, C., Hartman, S. C., & Winsler, A. (2017). Preschool writing and premathematics predict Grade 3 achievement for low-income, ethnically diverse children. Journal of Educational Research, 110(5), 528–537. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2016.1145095.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McBride-Chang, C., Zhou, Y., Cho, J., Aram, D., Levin, I., & Tolchinsky, L. (2011). Visual spatial skill: A consequence of learning to read? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109(2), 256–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mo, J., McBride, C., & Yip, L. (2018). Identifying the unique role of orthographic working memory in a componential model of Hong Kong kindergarteners’ chinese written spelling. Reading and Writing, 31(5), 1083–1108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moeller, K., Pixner, S., Zuber, J., Kaufmann, L., & Nuerk, H. (2011). Early place-value understanding as a precursor for later arithmetic performance—A longitudinal study on numerical development. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32(5), 1837–1851.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2012). MPLUS Version 7 user’s guide. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pak, A. K., Cheng-Lai, A., Tso, I. F., Shu, H., Li, W., & Anderson, R. C. (2005). Visual chunking skills of Hong Kong children. Reading and Writing, 18(5), 437–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pan, J., Kong, Y., Song, S., McBride, C., Liu, H., & Shu, H. (2017). Socioeconomic status, parent report of children’s early language skills, and late literacy skills: a long term follow-up study among Chinese children. Reading and Writing, 30, 401–416 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-016-9682-4.

  • Pan, D. J., Yang, X., Lui, K. F. H., Lo, J. C. M., McBride, C., & Ho, C. S. H. (2021). Character and word reading in Chinese: Why and how they should be considered uniquely vis-à-vis literacy development. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 65, 101961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.101961.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peng, P., & Kievit, R. A. (2020). The development of academic achievement and cognitive abilities: A bidirectional perspective. Child Development Perspectives, 14(1), 15–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raven, J. C., Court, J. H., & Raven, R. (1976). Manual for raven’s progressive matrices and vocabulary scales. Section III: Standard progressive matrices. London: Hong Kong Lewis and Company Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (2010). Ensuring positiveness of the scaled difference chi-square test statistic. Psychometrika, 75(2), 243–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, M., Merz, S., Stricker, J., De Smedt, B., Torbeyns, J., Verschaffel, L., & Luwel, K. (2018). Associations of number line estimation with mathematical competence: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 89(5), 1467–1484. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13068.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sella, F., Berteletti, I., Brazzolotto, M., Luncageli, D., & Zorzi, M. (2013). Number line estimation in children with developmental dyscalculia. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 11(2), 41–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7(4), 422–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegler, R. S., & Booth, J. L. (2004). Development of numerical estimation in young children. Child Development, 75(2), 428–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegler, R. S., & Opfer, J. E. (2003). The development of numerical estimation evidence for multiple representations of numerical quantity. Psychological Science, 14(3), 237–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegler, R. S., & Ramani, G. B. (2009). Playing linear number board games-but not circular ones-improves low-income preschoolers’ numerical understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 545–560. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simms, V., Clayton, S., Cragg, L., Gilmore, C., & Johnson, S. (2016). Explaining the relationship between number line estimation and mathematical achievement: The role of visuomotor integration and visuospatial skills. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 145, 22–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, V., & Strasser, K. (2017). The association between arithmetic and reading.

  • Tang, Y., Zhang, W., Chen, K., Feng, S., Ji, Y., Shen, J.,. Liu, Y. (2006). Arithmetic processing in the brain shaped by cultures. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(28), 10775–10780. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0604416103

  • The Education Bureau HKSAR. (2006). Guide to the pre-primary curriculum. Hong Kong: Government Printing Department.

  • Thompson, C. A., & Siegler, R. S. (2010). Linear numerical-magnitude representations aid children’s memory for numbers. Psychological Science, 21(9), 1274–1281.

  • Tong, X., & McBride, C. (2014). Chinese children’s statistical learning of orthographic regularities: Positional constraints and character structure. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(4), 291–308.

  • Tong, X., McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., & Wong, A. M. (2009). Morphological awareness,orthographic knowledge, and spelling errors: Keys to understanding early Chinese literacy acquisition. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(5), 426–452.

  • Varol, F., & Farran, D. (2007). Elementary school students’ mental computation proficiencies.Early Childhood Education Journal, 35(1), 89–94.

  • Walsh, V. (2003). A theory of magnitude: Common cortical metrics of time, space and quantity. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(11), 483–488.

  • Wong, T. T.-Y., & Chan, W. W.-L. (2019). Identifying children with persistent low math achievement: The role of number-magnitude mapping and symbolic numerical processing. Learning and Instruction, 60(1), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.11.006.

  • Woodcock, R. W., Mather, N., McGrew, K. S., & Wendling, B. J. (2001). Woodcock-johnson III tests of cognitive abilities. Riverside Publishing Company Itasca.

  • Yang, X., Huo, S., & Zhang, X. (2021). Visual-spatial skills contribute to Chinese reading and arithmetic for different reasons: A three-wave longitudinal study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 208, 105142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105142

  • Yang, X., McBride, C., Ho, C. S. H., & Chung, K. K. H. (2020). Longitudinal associations of phonological processing skills, Chinese word reading, and arithmetic. Reading and Writing, 33(7), 1679–1699. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-019-09998-9

  • Ye, Y., Yan, M., Ruan, Y., McBride, C., Zheng, M., & Yin, L. (2021). Exploring the underpinnings and longitudinal associations of word reading and word spelling: A 2-year longitudinal study of Hong Kong Chinese children transitioning to primary school.Scientific Studies of Reading. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2021.1871909

  • Yeung, P., Ho, C. S., Chik, P. P., Lo, L., Luan, H., Chan, D. W., & Chung, K. K. (2011).Reading and spelling Chinese among beginning readers: What skills make a difference?Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(4), 285–313.

  • Zebian, S. (2005). Linkages between number concepts, spatial thinking, and directionality of writing: The SNARC effect and the reverse SNARC effect in English and Arabic monoliterates,biliterates, and illiterate Arabic speakers. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 5(1/2), 165–190.

  • Zhang, X. (2018). Letter- name knowledge longitudinally predicts young Chinese children’s Chinese word reading and number competencies in a multilingual context. Learning and Individual Differences, 65, 176–186.

  • Zhang, X., Hu, B. Y., Ren, L., & Fan, X. (2017). Pathways to reading, mathematics,and science: Examining domain-general correlates in young Chinese children. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 51, 366–377. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.09.004

  • Zhang, X., Hu, B. Y., Ren, L., & Fan, X. (2018). Sources of individual differences in young Chinese children’s reading and mathematics skill: A longitudinal study. Journal of School Psychology, 71, 122–137.

  • Zhang, X., Koponen, T., Räsänen, P., Aunola, K., Lerkkanen, M., & Nurmi, J. (2014).Linguistic and spatial skills predict early arithmetic development via counting sequence knowledge. Child Development, 85(3), 1091–1107.

  • Zhang, X., & Lin, D. (2015). Pathways to arithmetic: The role of visual-spatial and language skills in written arithmetic, arithmetic word problems, and nonsymbolic arithmetic.Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 188–197. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.01.005

  • Zhang, X., & Lin, D. (2017). Does growth rate in spatial ability matter in predicting early arithmetic competence? Learning and Instruction, 49, 232–241. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.02.003

  • Zhang, X., & Lin, D. (2018). Cognitive precursors of word reading versus arithmetic competencies in young Chinese children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 42, 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2017.08.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Humanities and Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, China

    Dora Jue Pan

  2. Faculty of Health and Education, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

    Yingyi Liu

  3. Department of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University–Hong Kong Baptist University United International College, Zhuhai, China

    Mo Zheng

  4. Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

    Connie Suk Han Ho

  5. Department of Human Development and Family Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

    David J. Purpura, Catherine McBride & JingTong Ong

Authors
  1. Dora Jue Pan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Yingyi Liu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mo Zheng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Connie Suk Han Ho
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. David J. Purpura
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Catherine McBride
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. JingTong Ong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Catherine McBride.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pan, D.J., Liu, Y., Zheng, M. et al. Visual-orthographic skills predict the covariance of Chinese word reading and arithmetic calculation. Read Writ (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-023-10473-9

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-023-10473-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation